The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, were a major international multi-sport event that took place in Beijing, China, from August 8 to August 24, 2008.[a] A total of 11,028 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) competed in 28 sports and 302 events (one event more than the schedule of the 2004 Games). China became the22nd nation to host the Olympic Games and the 18th to hold a Summer Olympic Games. It was the third time that the Summer Olympic Games were held in Asia, after Tokyo, Japan in 1964and Seoul, South Korea in 1988. These Games were the third time that Olympic events have been held in the territories of two different NOCs, as the equestrian events were held in Hong Kong.[b]
Beijing was awarded the Games over four competitors on July 13, 2001, having won an absolute majority of votes from members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) after two rounds of voting.[2] The Government of the People's Republic of China promoted the Games and invested heavily in new facilities and transportation systems. A total of 37 venues were used to host the events including 12 constructed for use at the Games. The official logo of these Olympic Games, titled "Dancing Beijing", featured a stylised calligraphic character jīng (京, meaning capital), referring to the host city. Media outlets reported unprecedented audience interest in the Games, and these Olympics had the largest television audience in Olympic history.[3]
There were 43 new world records and 132 new Olympic records set at the 2008 Summer Olympics. An unprecedented 86 countries won at least one medal during the Games. Chinese athletes won the most gold medals, with 51, and 100 medals altogether, while the United States had the most medals total with 110. Michael Phelps broke the records for most gold medals in one Olympics and for most career gold medals for an Olympian by winning eight swimmingevents. Usain Bolt secured the traditional title of "World's Fastest Man" by setting new world records in the 100 m and 200 m sprints.
The choice of China as a host country was a subject of criticism by some politicians and non-governmental organizations concerned about China's human rights record. China and others, meanwhile, warned against politicizing the Olympics. At the closing ceremony IOC presidentJacques Rogge declared the event a "truly exceptional Games" after earlier asserting that the IOC had "absolutely no regrets" in choosing Beijing to host the 2008 Games.[4]
Contents[hide] |
[edit]Organization
[edit]Bid
| 2008 Summer Olympics bidding results | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| City | NOC | Round 1 | Round 2 |
| Beijing |  China | 44 | 56 |
| Toronto |  Canada | 20 | 22 |
| Paris |  France | 15 | 18 |
| Istanbul |  Turkey | 17 | 9 |
| Osaka |  Japan | 6 | — |
Main article: Bids for the 2008 Summer Olympics
Beijing was elected as the host city on July 13, 2001, during the 112th IOC Session in Moscow, defeating Toronto, Paris, Istanbul, and Osaka. Prior to the session, five other cities (Bangkok, Cairo, Havana, Kuala Lumpur, and Seville) submitted bids to the IOC but failed to make the short list chosen by the IOC Executive Committee in 2000. After the first round of voting, Beijing held a significant lead over the other four candidates. Osaka received only six votes and was eliminated. In the second round, Beijing was supported by an absolute majorityof voters, eliminating the need for subsequent rounds.[5]
Members of the IOC did not disclose their votes, but news reports speculated that broad international support led to China's selection, especially from developing nations who had received assistance from China in the construction of stadiums. The size of China, its increased enforcement of doping controls, and sympathy concerning its loss of the 2000 Summer Olympics to Sydney were all factors in the decision.[6] Eight years earlier, Beijing led every round of voting for the 2000 Summer Olympics until they lost in the final round to Sydney by two votes.[7]
Human rights concerns expressed by Amnesty International and politicians in both Europe and the United States were considered by the delegates, according to IOC Executive Director François Carrard. Carrard and others suggested that the selection might lead to improvements in human rights in China. In addition, a number of IOC delegates who had formerly been athletes expressed concern about heat and air quality during the Games. China outlined plans to address these environmental concerns in its bid application.[6]
[edit]Costs
On March 6, 2009 the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games reported that total spending on the games was "generally as much as that of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games", which was about $15 billion, and that surplus revenues from the Olympic Games would exceed the original target of $16 million.[8] Other sources, however, estimated that approximately $40 billion had been spent on the Games, which would make it the most expensive Olympic Games by a wide margin.[9][10]
[edit]Venues
By May 2007, construction of all 31 Beijing-based Olympic Games venues had begun.[11] The Chinese government also invested in the renovation and construction of six venues outside Beijing as well as 59 training centres. The largest architectural pieces to be built for the games were the Beijing National Stadium, Beijing National Indoor Stadium, Beijing National Aquatics Center, Olympic Green Convention Center, Olympic Green, and Beijing Wukesong Culture & Sports Center. Almost 85% of the construction budget for the six main venues was funded by $2.1 billion (RMB¥17.4 billion) in corporate bids and tenders. Investments were expected from corporations seeking ownership rights after the 2008 Summer Olympics.[12] Some events were held outside Beijing, namely football in Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shenyang, and Tianjin; sailing in Qingdao; and, because of the "uncertainties of equine diseases and major difficulties in establishing a disease-free zone", the equestrian events were held in Hong Kong.[13]
The centrepiece of the 2008 Summer Olympics was the Beijing National Stadium, nicknamed "The Bird's Nest" because of its nest-like skeletal structure. The stadium hosted both the opening and closing ceremonies as well as the athletics competition.[14] Construction of the venue began on December 24, 2003. The Guangdong Olympic Stadium was originally planned, constructed, and completed in 2001 to help host the Games, but a decision was then made to construct a new stadium in Beijing.[15] In 2001, the city held a bidding process to select the best arena design. Several criteria were required of each design, including the ability for post-Olympics use, a retractable roof, and low maintenance costs.[16] The entry list was narrowed to thirteen final designs.[17] The bird's nest model submitted by architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron in collaboration with Li Xinggang of China Architecture Design and Research Group (CADG) was selected as the top design by both a professional panel and by a broader audience during a public exhibition. The selection of the design became official in April 2003.[16] Construction of the stadium was a joint venture among the original designers, project architect Stefan Marbach, artist Ai Weiwei, and a group of CADG architects led by Li Xinggang. Its $423 million cost was funded by the state-owned corporate conglomerate CITIC and the Beijing State-Owned Assets Management Company.[16][18]
[edit]Transport
To prepare for Olympic visitors, Beijing's transportation infrastructure was expanded significantly. Beijing's airport underwent a major renovation with the addition of the new Terminal 3, the world's largest airport terminal, designed by renowned architectNorman Foster.[19]
Within the city itself, Beijing's subway doubled its capacity and overall size, adding an additional 7 lines and 80 stations to the previously existing 4 lines and 64 stations. Included in this expansion was a new link connecting directly to the city's airport. Also, a fleet of thousands of buses, minibuses and official cars transported spectators, athletes and officials between venues.[20][21]
In an effort to improve air quality, the city placed restrictions on construction sites, gas stations, and on the use of commercial and passenger vehicles in Beijing.[22]From June 20 through September 20, passenger vehicle restrictions were placed on alternate days depending on the terminal digit of the car's license plate. It was anticipated that this measure would take 45% of Beijing's 3.3 million cars off the streets. The boosted public transport network was expected to absorb the demand created by these restrictions and the influx of visitors, which was estimated at more than 4 million extra passengers per day.[23]
[edit]Marketing
Main article: 2008 Summer Olympics marketing
The 2008 Summer Olympics emblem is known as Dancing Beijing (simplified Chinese: 舞动的北京; traditional Chinese: 舞動的北京; pinyin:Wǔdòng de Beíjīng). The emblem combines a traditional Chinese red seal and a representation of the calligraphic character jīng (京, "national capital", also the second character of Beijing's Chinese name) with athletic features. The open arms of the calligraphic word symbolises the invitation from China to the world to share in its culture. IOC president Jacques Rogge was very happy with the emblem, saying, "Your new emblem immediately conveys the awesome beauty and power of China which are embodied in your heritage and your people."[24]
The slogan for the 2008 Olympics is "One World, One Dream" (simplified Chinese: 同一个世界 同一个梦想; traditional Chinese: 同一個世界 同一個夢想; pinyin: Tóng Yíge Shìjiè Tóng Yíge Mèngxiǎng.)[25] The slogan calls upon the whole world to join in the Olympic spirit and build a better future for humanity. It was chosen from over 210,000 entries submitted from around the world.[26] The mascots of Beijing 2008 were the five Fuwa,[27] each representing both a colour of the Olympic rings and a symbol of Chinese culture.
In 2006, the Beijing Organizing Committee released pictograms of 35 Olympic disciplines (for some multi-discipline sports, such as cycling, a single pictogram was released).[28][29] This set of sport icons was named the beauty of seal characters, because of each pictogram's likeness to Chinese seal script.
[edit]Media coverage
Further information: List of 2008 Summer Olympics broadcasters
The 2008 Games were the first to be produced and broadcast entirely in high definition (HD) by the host broadcaster.[30] In comparison, American broadcaster NBC broadcasted only half of the Turin Winter Games in HD.[31][32] In their bid for the Olympic Games in 2001, Beijing stated to the Olympic Evaluation Commission "that there will be no restrictions on media reporting and movement of journalists up to and including the Olympic Games",[33] although some media outlets claimed that organizers ultimately failed to live up to this commitment.[c]
According to Nielsen Media Research, 4.7 billion viewers worldwide tuned in to some of the television coverage, one-fifth larger than the 3.9 billion who watched the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens.[34] American broadcaster NBC produced only 2 hours of online streaming video for the 2006 Winter Games but produced approximately 2,200 hours of coverage for the 2008 Summer Games. For the first time "live online video rights in some markets for the Olympics have been separately negotiated, not part of the overall 'broadcast rights,'"; this new media of the digital economy was growing "nine times faster than the rest of the advertising market".[35]
Globally, the 2008 Olympics was subject to extensive copyright restriction, which amounted to territorial restrictions whilst still being covered extensively online within various exclusive copyright autarkies. Thus despite the international nature of the event and the global reach of the internet, the coverage world wide of assorted nation-states and television networks was not readily accessible. There was no global orsupranational media coverage. The international European Broadcasting Union (EBU), for example, provided live coverage and highlights of all arenas only for certain territories on their website, Eurovisionsports.tv.[36] Many national broadcasters likewise restrict online events to their domestic audiences.[37] The General National Copyright Administration of China announced that "individual (sic) and websites will face fines as high as 100,000 yuan for uploading recordings of Olympic Games video to the internet,"[38] part of an extensive campaign to protect the pertinent intellectual property rights.[39][40]
The Olympic Committee also set up a separate YouTube channel at Beijing 2008.
[edit]Torch relay
Main articles: 2008 Summer Olympics torch relay and 2008 Summer Olympics torch relay route
The design of the Olympic Torch was based on traditional scrolls and used a traditional Chinese design known as the "Propitious Clouds" (祥云). The torch was designed to remain lit in 65 km/h (40 mph) winds, temperatures as low as minus 40°C and in rain of up to 50 mm (2 in) per hour.
The relay, with the theme "Journey of Harmony", lasted 130 days and carried the torch 137,000 km (85,000 mi)—the longest distance of any Olympic torch relay since the tradition began at the1936 Berlin Games.[41][42] The torch relay was called a "public relations disaster" for China byUSA Today,[43] with protests of China's human rights record, particularly focused on Tibet. The IOC subsequently barred future Olympics organizers from staging international torch relays.[44]
The relay began March 24, 2008, in Olympia, Greece. From there, it traveled across Greece toPanathinaiko Stadium in Athens, and then to Beijing, arriving on March 31. From Beijing, the torch followed a route passing through every continent except Antarctica. The torch visited cities on the Silk Road, symbolizing ancient links between China and the rest of the world. A total of 21,880 torchbearers were selected from around the world by various organizations and entities.[45]
The international portion of the relay was problematic. The month-long world tour encountered wide-scale protests. After trouble in London where protesters made several attempts to put out the flame, the torch was extinguished in Paris the following day.[46] The American leg inSan Francisco on April 9 was altered without prior warning to avoid such scenes, although there were still demonstrations along the original route.[47] The relay was further delayed and simplified after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake hit western China.[48]
The flame was carried to the top of Mount Everest[45] on a 108 km (67 mi) long "highway" scaling the Tibetan side of the mountain especially built for the relay. The $19.7 million blacktop project spanned from Tingri County of Xigazê Prefecture to the Everest Base Camp.[49] In 2008 March, China banned mountaineers from climbing its side of Mount Everest and later persuaded the Nepalese government to close their side as well, officially citing environmental concerns.[50] It also reflected concerns by the Chinese government that Tibet activists may try to disrupt its plans to carry the Olympic torch up the world's tallest peak.[51]
The originally proposed route would have taken the torch through Taipei after leaving Vietnam and before heading for Hong Kong. The government of Taiwan (then led by the independence-leaning Democratic Progressive Party), however, objected to this proposal, claiming that this route would make the portion of the relay in Taiwan appear to be part of the torch's domestic journey through China, rather than a leg on the international route.[52] This dispute, as well as demands that the flag of the Republic of China and the National Anthem of the Republic of China be banned along the route led the government of Taiwan to reject the proposal that it be part of the relay route, and the two sides of the Taiwan Strait subsequently blamed each other for injecting politics into the event.[53]
[edit]Calendar
In the following calendar for the 2008 Olympic Games, each blue box represents an event competition, such as a qualification round, on that day. The yellow boxes represent days during which medal-awarding finals for a sport were held. Each bullet in these boxes is an event final, the number of bullets per box representing the number of finals that were contested on that day. On the left the calendar lists each sport with events held during the Games, and at the right how many gold medals were won in that sport. There is a key at the top of the calendar to aid the reader.[54]
| ● | Opening ceremony | Event competitions | ● | Event finals | Exhibition gala | ● | Closing ceremony |
| August 2008 | 6th Wed | 7th Thu | 8th Fri | 9th Sat | 10th Sun | 11th Mon | 12th Tue | 13th Wed | 14th Thu | 15th Fri | 16th Sat | 17th Sun | 18th Mon | 19th Tue | 20th Wed | 21st Thu | 22nd Fri | 23rd Sat | 24th Sun | Gold medals |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Archery | ● | ● | ● | ● | 4 | |||||||||||||||
 Athletics | ● ● | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ●● ● | ● ●● ●● ● | ● ●● ●● | ● ●● | ● ●● ●● ● | ● ● ●● ● ●● | ● ●● ●● ●● | ● | 47 | |||||||||
 Badminton | ● | ● ● | ● ● | 5 | ||||||||||||||||
 Baseball | ● | 1 | ||||||||||||||||||
 Basketball | ● | ● | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
 Boxing | ● ●● ●● | ● ●● ●● ● | 11 | |||||||||||||||||
 Canoeing | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● ●● ● ● | ● ●● ●● ● | 16 | |||||||||||||||
 Cycling | ● | ● | ● ● | ● | ● ●● | ● | ● ● | ● ●● | ● ● | ● ● | 18 | |||||||||
 Diving | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | 8 | |||||||||||
 Equestrian | ● ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | 6 | ||||||||||||||
 Fencing | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | 10 | ||||||||||
 Field hockey | ● | ● | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
 Football (soccer) | ● | ● | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
 Gymnastics | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ● | ● | ● | 18 | ||||||||||
 Handball | ● | ● | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
 Judo | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | 14 | ||||||||||||
 Modern pentathlon | ● | ● | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
 Rowing | ● ●● ●● ●● | ● ●● ●● ●● | 14 | |||||||||||||||||
 Sailing | ● ●● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | 11 | ||||||||||||||
 Shooting | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● | ● ● | ● | ● ● | ● | 15 | ||||||||||
 Softball | ● | 1 | ||||||||||||||||||
 Swimming | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ● | ● ●● ● | ● | ● | 34 | |||||||||
 Synchronized swimming | ● | ● | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
 Table tennis | ● | ● | ● | ● | 4 | |||||||||||||||
 Taekwondo | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | 8 | |||||||||||||||
 Tennis | ● | ● ●● | 4 | |||||||||||||||||
 Triathlon | ● | ● | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
 Volleyball | ● | ● | ● | ● | 4 | |||||||||||||||
 Water polo | ● | ● | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
 Weightlifting | ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | 15 | |||||||||
 Wrestling | ● ● | ● ● | ● ●● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ● | ● ●● | 18 | |||||||||||
| Total gold medals | 7 | 14 | 13 | 19 | 17 | 15 | 18 | 27 | 37 | 18 | 20 | 11 | 21 | 21 | 32 | 12 | 302 | |||
| Cumulative Total | 7 | 21 | 34 | 53 | 70 | 85 | 103 | 130 | 167 | 185 | 205 | 216 | 237 | 258 | 290 | 302 | ||||
| Ceremonies | ● | ● | ||||||||||||||||||
| August 2008 | 6th Wed | 7th Thu | 8th Fri | 9th Sat | 10th Sun | 11th Mon | 12th Tue | 13th Wed | 14th Thu | 15th Fri | 16th Sat | 17th Sun | 18th Mon | 19th Tue | 20th Wed | 21st Thu | 22nd Fri | 23rd Sat | 24th Sun | Gold medals |
[edit]Games
Further information: 2008 Summer Olympics highlights and List of 2008 Summer Olympics medal winners
[edit]Opening ceremony
Main article: 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
The opening ceremony officially began at 8:00 pm on August 8, 2008 in the Beijing National Stadium.[55][56] The number 8 is associated with prosperity and confidence in Chinese culture, and here it was a triple eight for the date and one extra for time (close to 08:08:08 pm).[57] The ceremony was co-directed by Chinese filmmaker Zhang Yimou and Chinese choreographer Zhang Jigang[58] and featured a cast of over 15,000 performers.[59] The ceremony lasted over four hours and was reported to have cost over US$100 million to produce.[60]
A rich assembly of ancient Chinese art and culture dominated the ceremony. It opened with the beating of Fou drums for the countdown. Subsequently, a giant scroll was unveiled and became the show's centerpiece. The official song of the 2008 Olympics, titled "You and Me", was performed by Britain's Sarah Brightman and China's Liu Huan, on a large spinning rendition of the globe.[61] The last recipient in the Olympic Torch relay, former Chinese gymnast Li Ning ignited the cauldron, after being suspended into the air by wires and completing a lap of the National Stadium at Stadium roof height in the air.[62]
The opening ceremony was lauded by spectators and various international presses as spectacular and spellbinding.[63] Hein Verbruggen, chairman of the IOC Coordination Commission for the XXIX Olympiad, called the ceremony "a grand, unprecedented success."[64]
[edit]Sports
The program for the Beijing Games was quite similar to that of the 2004 Summer Olympics held inAthens. There were 28 sports and 302 events at the 2008 Games. Nine new events were held, including two from the new cycling discipline of BMX. Women competed in the 3000 metresteeplechase for the first time. Open water swimming events for men and women, over the distance of 10 kilometres (6.2 miles), were added to the swimming discipline. Team events (men and women) in table tennis replaced the doubles events.[65] In fencing, women's team foil and women's team sabre replaced men's team foil and women's team épée.[d] Two sports were open only to men, baseball and boxing, while one sport and one discipline were open only to women,softball and synchronized swimming. Equestrian and Mixed Badminton are the only sport in which men and women compete together.[66][67]
The following were the 28 sports that were contested at the Games. The number of events contested in each sport is indicated in parentheses (in sports with more than one discipline, as identified by the IOC,[68] these are also specified).
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In addition to the official Olympic sports, the Beijing Organising Committee was given special dispensation by the IOC to run a wushucompetition in parallel to the Games. The Wushu Tournament Beijing 2008 saw 128 athletes from 43 countries participate, with medals awarded in 15 separate events; however, these were not to be added to the official medal tally since Wushu was not on the programme of the 2008 Olympic Games.[69]
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